The front of the "Mykonos Vase", a large pithos (πίθος, storage jar; plural, pithoi, πίθοι)
with relief depictions Greek warriors inside the Trojan Horse (the Wooden Horse of Troy)
on the neck, and scenes of the Greeks sacking Troy (the "Ilioupersis") on the body. One of
the earliest dated objects with a depiction of this episode from the end of the siege of Troy.

Made in a workshop on the Cycladic island Tenos (modern Tinos, Τήνος), around 675-650 BC.
Found by chance in summer 1961, during the digging of a well of a private house in the area
of Matogianni-Fournakia, Chora, Mykonos. Height 133.9 cm, maximum diameter 73.3 cm.

The amphora was discovered at Eleusis in 1954, during excavations led by Greek archaeologist George E. Mylonas (see the note in Demeter part 1), among prehistoric burials in soil only 25-30 cm below the modern level. It is thought that the amphora had been damaged and many parts dragged away by centuries of ploughing.

Both the neck and the body of the vase are painted with the black and white outline technique, and depict heroes fighting monsters. The body shows Perseus beheading the Gorgon Medusa.

In The Odyssey, Book 9, Odysseus and twelve of his men are trapped in the cave of Polyphemos (Πολυφημος, Many-Voiced, Many Words, or Abounding in Songs and Legends), a son of Poseidon and one of an ancient race of gigantic Cyclopes (Κύκλωπες, Kyklopes; singular, Κύκλωψ, Kyklops, round-eyed). The mouth of the cave, in which Polyphemos lives with his sheep and goats, is blocked by an emormous rock which only he can move. During the evening and following day, the Cyclops eats six of Odysseus' companions, two at a time.

On the second evening, after he has eaten two of the men, the cunning Odysseus offers him strong Maroneian wine (given to him by the Thracian Maron) to wash down his meal. He quickly becomes drunk and falls into a stupor: "and reeling fell upon his back, and lay there with his thick neck bent aslant, and sleep, that conquers all, laid hold on him. And from his gullet came forth wine and bits of human flesh, and he vomited in his drunken sleep." Then, "... when the wine had stolen about the wits of the Cyclops", the seafarers heat in the fire the sharpened end of an olive wood stake a "fathom's length", which they had earlier cut from his shepherd's staff, itself as massive as the mast of a large ship. The glowing end can be seen in the amphora painting, as the three men drive it into the Cyclops' eye. In Homer's account, four men, chosen by lot, carried the stake while Odysseus "leaned heavily over from above and twirled the stake round".

Homer gave a horrifically graphic description of the destruction of Polyphemos' eye, but did not write that he had only one, in fact spoke of his "eyelids" and "brows" in the plural. In ancient depictions of the scene the Cyclops is often shown in profile, so that only one eye can be seen, which may have given rise to the idea that he was one-eyed. However, in several representations (including some shown below) he has two or even three, as in the mosaics in patras and Piazza Amerina, Sicily (see below).

"Then verily I thrust in the stake under the deep ashes until it should grow hot, and heartened all my comrades with cheering words, that I might see no man flinch through fear. But when presently that stake of olive-wood was about to catch fire, green though it was, and began to glow terribly, then verily I drew nigh, bringing the stake from the fire, and my comrades stood round me and a god breathed into us great courage.

They took the stake of olive-wood, sharp at the point, and thrust it into his eye, while I, throwing my weight upon it from above, whirled it round, as when a man bores a ship's timber with a drill, while those below keep it spinning with the thong, which they lay hold of by either end, and the drill runs around unceasingly. Even so we took the fiery-pointed stake and whirled it around in his eye, and the blood flowed around the heated thing. And his eyelids wholly and his brows round about did the flame singe as the eyeball burned, and its roots crackled in the fire. And as when a smith dips a great axe or an adze in cold water amid loud hissing to temper it - for therefrom comes the strength of iron - even so did his eye hiss round the stake of olive-wood.

Terribly then did he cry aloud, and the rock rang around; and we, seized with terror, shrank back, while he wrenched from his eye the stake, all befouled with blood, and flung it from him, wildly waving his arms."

Homer, The Odyssey, Book 9, lines 375-398. At Perseus Digital Library.

The blinded Cyclops removes the door-stone and, sittting at the cave's entrance, lets his sheep and goats out so that he can more easily find the men. But they escape by hiding beneath his huge rams, "well-fed and thick of fleece, fine beasts and large, with wool dark as the violet" (see below). They steal his flocks - adding insult to injury - and drive them to their ship, then sail away. Polyphemos chases after them. and from the shore throws huge rocks at them: "and he waxed the more wroth at heart, and broke off the peak of a high mountain and hurled it at us, and cast it in front of the dark-prowed ship. And the sea surged beneath the stone as it fell". (see below) His efforts prove futile and Odysseus gets away.

This is a key episode in The Odyssey, for as the men sail off Polyphemos calls upon his father Poseidon to avenge him by ensuring that Odysseus never reaches his home:

"... and he then prayed to the lord Poseidon, stretching out both his hands to the starry heaven: 'Hear me, Poseidon, earth-enfolder, thou dark-haired god, if indeed I am thy son and thou declarest thyself my father; grant that Odysseus, the sacker of cities, may never reach his home, even the son of Laertes, whose home is in Ithaca; but if it is his fate to see his friends and to reach his well-built house and his native land, late may he come and in evil case, after losing all his comrades, in a ship that is another's; and may he find woes in his house.' So he spoke in prayer, and the dark-haired god heard him."

The sea god thus prevents Odysseus from returning to Ithaka, and all his men are eventually killed. After ten years of wandering, the hero is only allowed to go home following the intervention of Athena, who pleads his case to her father Zeus. When he finally reaches Ithaka, on another's ship, provided by the Phaeacian king Alkinous (Ἀλκίνους), he finds his palace plagued by "Penelope's suitors", several parasitic nobles determined that one of them should marry his wife Penelope (Πηνελόπη or Πηνελόπεια) and take his place as king (see below).

On the amphora the arms, torsos and legs of Polyphemos and two of the men are filled in with black. The leading man, thought to be Odysseus, is the only figure whose body is painted in outline with a fill of white, clay-based paint, most of which is now worn away. The drawing of his outline appears overworked, perhaps meant to suggest his strength and the speed of the action. The archaeologist Alan Johnston commented on Odysseus' pose: "He kneels on his opponent like a pharaoh." [2] It is notable that here, and on other depictions of Odysseus of the 7th - early 5th century (see images below), he is not wearing a pilos, which was later to be his identifying headgear.

The blinding scene is shown on a number of other vases of the mid 7th century:

•   The "Aristonothos Krater", around 650 BC, found at Caere (today Cerveteri), Etruria, Italy. Signed by Aristonothos, the earliest known signature by a Greek painter/potter (See below).

•   A 24.5 cm high fragment of a Proto-Argive krater, circa 650 BC, now in the Argos Archaeological Museum. Inv. No. C149. In a panel on the fragment are two naked, bearded men and part of the leg of a third, approaching from the right, and holding the stake above their heads. On the left, Polyephemos, also naked, is shown at around twice the size of the men, lying on a rock or pile of stones. All the figures are shown in profile, with clear, fine, black outlines and light pinkish flesh. Unfortunately, the Argos museum has been closed for some years.

•   A "white-on-red", impasto-ware pithos from Etruria, perhaps Caere, attributed to the Workshop of the Calabresi Urn, around 650-625 BC. Height with lid 100.7 cm, diameter 56 cm. Three men blind Polyphemos, who is shown sitting on a stool and at the same scale as the men. All the figures wear short chitons (tunics) and, as in all the depictions mentioned here, headbands. Paul Getty Museum, Getty Villa, Malibu. Inv. No. 96.AE.135 (at getty.edu).

The Late Geometric "Aristonothos Krater", dated variously to around 680-630 BC, is inscribed with the earliest known signature by a Greek painter/potter: Ἀριστόνοθος ἐποίσεν (Aristonothos epoiesen, Aristonothos made it), thought to be written in the Ionic script of Euboea, although readings of the inscription differ (e.g. Aristonophos, Aristonoos and Ariston of Kos). The only vase attributed to Aristonothos.

Four naked, bearded men with swords slung over their shoulders, shown in profile, advance to the right, holding the stake at waist level and thrusting it into the eye of Polyphemos. The body of a fifth man at the rear (on the far left) is turned in the opposite direction, and he pushes a foot against a wall to add power to the thrust of the stake. The Cyclops, sitting on the ground, is shown in profile at the same scale as the men. His face is now missing.

The other side of the krater shows warriors on two ships in a sea battle (see Aristonothos).

Odysseus and his men are shown in profile as a row of four, advancing from the left with the staff, held at shoulder height, entering the eye of Polyphemos, who is also shown in profile, sitting on the ground and holding a large drinking cup. The men all wear short chitons (tunics), while the Cyclops is naked and has long, dishevelled hair and beard.

Odysseus (Ὀδυσσεύς) was known to the Etruscans as Uthuze, from which his Roman name Ulysses may have been derived. The local Greek and Italic variations of his name have given rise to much speculation about its ancient origins and etymology.

The vase painting shows two overlapping scenes: on the left the stake being heated in the fire; on the right the heated stake is used to blind Polyphemos. Each of the three bearded men is barefoot and wears a petasos (broad-brimmed hat) and a short chiton (tunic). The figure on the left heating the stake has a scabbard in his belt. The lower part of his chiton is decorated with a pattern of dots, as is that of one of the two men blinding Polyphemos. Perhaps both figures represent Odysseus.

The naked, bearded Cyclops, shown at a larger scale than the men, reclines on a rock, cradling a club in his left arm. His normal-looking eye is closed and he is apparently asleep. Above him are wavy branches of the type often shown on vase paintings with Dionysian themes, perhaps indicating Polyphemos' drunken state.

The relief was restored between 1784 and 1801, and several missing or damaged parts were replaced by modern additions, including: the face of the figure on the far left; the right forearm of Odysseus (top, centre); the head and left forearm of the "youth" on the far right. The head of Polyphemos has been so heavily worked that the eye on his forehead is now hardly visible.

In the centre, Odysseus, wearing a pilos (conical cap), a sleeveless chiton (tunic) and cloak, stands over Polyphemos, who wears an animal skin cloak, lying drunk on a rock. His kylix (wine cup) has fallen to the ground beneath his hanging left arm. Next to it sits a sheep. The animal seems rather small, especially considering that Odysseus and his crew later escape from Polyphemos' cave by hiding beneath his giant sheep (see below). On the left two of Odysseus' bearded crewmen stand naked. One appears to be holding an object, perhaps a wineskin, in his right hand. On the right, stands a figure in a short chiton, facing frontally, who the restorers have given the head of a beardless youth.

According to local legends, the 70 metre high Isole dei Cyclopi (the Cyclops Islands) off the coast of Aci Trezza (now named the Riviera dei Cyclopi), north of Catania, are the huge rocks the enraged Cyclops threw at Odysseus and his men as they escaped on their ship (see below).

It is thought that this relief may be a simplified version of a fragmented statue group depicting the blinding of Polyphemos (around 50 BC), discovered in 1957 in a grotto at the Villa of Emperor Tiberius at Sperlonga, on the west coast of Italy (between Rome and Naples), and was used as a basis for the reconstruction. (See also Skylla below.)

Another similar sculpture group was discovered in Ephesus in 1959, in the ruins of the Domitian Fountain (built 92-93 AD), at west end of the Upper "State" Agora. It is thought to have originally formed a pedimental frieze, perhaps on a temple of Dionysus, and to have later been reused to decorate the fountain. [4] The surviving fragments are now displayed in the Ephesus Archaeological Museum, Selçuk. A modern reconstruction of the group has been set up in a pedimental setting outside the museum.

The statue was found in Rome, although the exact details appear to be unknown; it may have been discovered during building work either at the Basilica of San Stephano on the Caelian Hill, or at the Palazzo Venezia, north of the Capitoline Hill. It was first kept in the Palazzo Venezia, and is known to have been in the Vatican (Inv. No. Boccapaduli 36) after 1550. It was acquired by the Capitoline Collection in 1636, and, according to an inscription on the base, was taken in the same year to the Palazzo Conservatori where it was restored, before being moved to its present location in the mid 18th century.

"Said to have been found near the church of San Stefano Rotondo. Has been restored as the god Pan, and was once the subject of much controversy as to whether the eye in the forehead, was an eye, or a mere flaw in the marble. The hand with the pipes is a restoration. It is work of no artistic merit and doubtful antiquity."

Shakspere Wood, The Capitoline Museum of Sculpture, a Catalogue, page 18, No. 25. Propaganda Fide, Rome, 1872. At the Internet Archive.

The group has been extensively restored:

"The statement that this group was found on the Caelius is insufficiently attested... The right forearm, with the syrinx, and the left hand of the chief figure are restored. The head, which had been broken off, is antique, though it has been retouched, particularly at the top, and belongs to the statue. The head placed by the restorer on the body of the companion of Odysseus is antique, but originally belonged to a vine-wreathed figure of the boy Dionysos.

... Traces of a dark-brown pigment linger on the beard of Polyphemos, of brownish-red on his nude parts, and of greyish-violet on the skins hanging over his knees."

Wolfgang Helbig (1839-1915), Guide to the public collections of classical antiquities in Rome, Volume 1, pages 296-297, The Capitoline Museum, Corridor, No. 409 (35), Group of Polyphemos with a Companion of Odysseus. English translation by James F. and Findlay Muirhead. Karl Baedeker, Lepzig, 1895. At the Internet Archive.

Helbig made the connection between the statue group and the 97 cm high statuette of Odysseus offering the Cyclops a wine cup, now in the Museo Chiaramonti of the Vatican Museums. Inv. No. 1901 (see below). He also drew attention to depictions of the scene in which Odysseus gets Polyphemos drunk before the blinding, on a cinerary urn from Volterra and several terracotta oil lamps (pages 70-72, Museo Chiaramonti, No. 124 (704), Statuette of Ulysses). His Fig. 8 (Fig. 5 in the German edition) is a drawing of a relief on one of the lamps (see image, right), but he gives no further details about it. It is similar to that on a Roman period lamp acquired by the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (Inv. No. 83.AQ.377.5) in 1983 from a collection in Germany.

The same drawing of the lamp appeared earlier in R. Engelmann's Pictorial atlas of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, in which it is described as Roman. Engelmann remarked that the Cyclops' eye "seems to be of quite an ordinary shape, whereas literary tradition has represented him as one-eyed. This is, however, the rule in Greek art, and it is only in Roman and Etruscan art that he appears with one or, as is sometimes the case, three eyes." He did not mention the location of the lamp, merely noting:

"Bought at Naples by Prof. Brunn, of Munich. Ann. d. Inst., 1863, Tav. d'agg., O. 3, p. 430."

Like the Capitoline Polyphemos statue group above, made around the same time, the polychrome mosaic shows the Cyclops sitting on a rock with his legs apart, facing forewards, his head turned slightly to the viewer's left. With his lowered left hand he holds onto the right arm of one of Odysseus' men (head and left side missing), who is shown around half the size of the Cyclops. With his extended right arm he reaches out to take the bowl of wine offered by Odysseus (see images below). Only the deep, two-handled bowl, the hero's right hand and part of his forearm have survived.

Polyphemos, with a tanned, muscular body, shaggy hair and beard, has two normal eyes plus a third in the centre of his forehead. He wears a grey animal skin, fastened around his left shoulder, falling to the right across his lower torso and upper right thigh. His large right foot is bare. Behind his right leg sits a large, cream-coloured ram, facing left. A grey ram sits, facing left, to the left of his right shoulder, and another grey ram (now headless) sits, facing right, below his right foot. The same scene is shown in a much finer and better preserved, large 4th century AD floor mosaic in the Villa Romana, Piazza Amerina, Sicily. In that work too, Polyphemos has a third in the centre of his forehead. [6]

Surviving parts of the grey background on the right appear to indicate the cave setting, and there are three small sprigs of vegetation. At the top right corner of the scene is part of an inscription: Λ - Α - Ν . ΤΡΟΦ (L - A - N . TROF). The image is surrounded by a border decorated with two rows of geometric patterns, described by the musem label as "dented motif and quirk".

It is a very large mosaic, around 6 metres tall, and the surviving parts show that it was originally an impressively dynamic work of art, although perhaps not of the finest quality. Unfortunately, it is dimly lit and displayed horizontally on the floor of the museum, which makes it difficult to see the details, particularly the Cyclops' face in the centre (photographing it is very tricky). Visitors have to refer to the small drawing displayed next to it (see image, right) to appreciate the composition.

Some other mosaics in the cavernous new archaeological museum in Patras are displayed vertically, so that is easier to appreciate the compositions and imagery (see, for example, a mosaic of Aphdrodite with a mirror), so why not this one too? The design rationale of many museums is that ancient floor mosaics should be displayed on the floor to provide visitors with an impression of how they would have appeared in their original setting (e.g. in a villa or palace). However, this is very unhelpful for those who wish to understand them as works of art.

The new museum is generally under-lit, but otherwise the display of objects and the use of the generously large space is excellent. There is plenty to see, many of the exhibits are very impressive and some delightful surprises. It is definitely an improvement on the cramped environment of the old museum. But whereas the old museum was in the city centre, the new building is on a busy main road out on the eastern end of town, poorly signposted. Its location is outside the area covered by most maps of the city (if you can find one), and the tourist information office has been closed for years. There are frequent buses from the city centre, but it is not easy for first time visitors to discover which bus to take or where to get off.

A drawing of surviving parts of the
Polyphemos mosaic in Patras.

The figure under the ram is often described as "Odysseus or one of his companions", although it seems most likely that he is the hero Odysseus himself, as the central character and sole survivor of the epic journey in The Odyssey, who would have been the main interest for the artists and their customers and public.

One of the earliest surviving depictions of this scene is on a Middle Proto-Attic, black-and-white-style oinochoe (wine jug), the name vase of the Ram Jug Painter, around 665-640 BC. Found on Aegina. Aegina Archaeological Musem. Inv. No. 566.

On the right Polyphemos sits on a rock, his head to turned to the right.
On the left Odysseus escapes from his cave, hidden beneath one of his rams.

An Attic black-figure hydria. Found in the "Purification Pit" on the
island of Rheneia (Ῥήνεια), west of Delos (see Mistress of Animals).

Odysseus escaping from Polyphemos' cave
under a ram (left) as the Cyclops reclines.

An Attic black-figure oinochoe (wine jug)
by the Athena Painter, around 500 BC.

Odysseus or one of his companions, strapped beneath a ram,
escapes from the cave of Polyphemos (seated, right).

Attic black-figure lekythos, 525-475 BC. Preserved height 11.8 cm,
diameter of base 3.6 cm, maximum diameter of body 4.6 cm.

3rd Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities, Athens. Inv. No. A7747.

Polyphemos (right) sitting in his cave opposite a large ram, under which
is the small scratched figure of Odysseus or one of his companions.

Attic black-figure lekythos, 6th century BC. From Selinous (Selinunte), Sicily.

Odysseus or one of his companions, beneath a large ram, escapes from the cave of
Polyphemos, who is seated on the right, holding what may be a large wine cup.
Another member of Odysseus' crew stands behind the ram holding a spear or stake.

An Attic black-figure lekythos, around 500 BC, attributed to the Theseus Painter.

One of three large polychrome mosaic floors found during excations 1869-1870 at the Roman Villa of Baccano, on mile 16 of the Via Cassia, outside Rome. A lead pipe found there is inscribed with the name of Septimius Geta, brother of Emperor Septimius Severus (reigned 193-211 AD), leading scholars to believe that the villa belonged to the imperial family of the Septimii.

Excavation notes mention that the mosaic floor to which this scene belongs originally had 32 emblemata (mosaic panels). However, it has been restored with 25 small square panels (5 rows of 5), in which only parts of 20 mosaic scenes have survived. The picture panels are separated by a grid frame of double plaits on a black background. Most of the images are of mythical episodes or figures, including Muses, Leda, Ganymede, Marsyas, while others have a marine theme, including an emblema with different kinds of fish. All the emblemata were made using the fine opus vermiculatum (worm-like work) technique, but they vary in style and quality. It is thought that the panels were reused from other mosaics dating from the mid 1st to the late 2nd century AD.

This unusual object is exhibited among several other finds from tombs at Macri Langoni, at the back of a large display case in one of the dark Medieval rooms of the Rhodes Archaeological Museum, built between 1440 and 1481-1489 as a hospital by the crusading knights of the Order of Saint John. Details of the once brightly painted relief are now difficult to make out in the gloom. The photo above has been brightened considerably with the help of computer software.

A Roman marble statuette of Odysseus hiding under a ram in Polyphemos' cave.
An engraving published by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in 1767.

Luna marble. Height 78 cm, width 73 cm, depth 35 cm.

The statuettes of Odysseus hiding under a ram and Odysseus handing wine to Polyphemos, as well as other ancient artworks relating to Homeric tales, were first described and illustrated by the art historian Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-1768).

Johann Joachim Winckelmann, Monumenti antichi inediti spiegati ed illustrati da Giovanni Winckelmann, Volume I (Unedited antique monuments, described and illustrated by Giovanni Winckelmann). Rome, 1767. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

Engravings: Odysseus handing wine to Polyphemos, plate 154; Odysseus hiding under a ram, plate 155.

Much of the Albani Collection was later sold off and the works are now dispersed among many collections and museums around the world (for example, the Capitoline Museums, Naples, Dresden and the Louvre). However, several works are still in the private collection of the Villa Albani which has belonged to the Torlonia family since 1866. Kept in storage for many years, plans were set in motion in 2016 to finally exhibit the works to the public.

A photograph and short description of Odysseus hiding under a ram also appeared in a catalogue of works in the Torlonia Museum by Carlo Lodovico Visconti (1818-1894).

Carlo Lodovico Visconti, I monumenti del Museo Torlonia riprodotti con la fototipia, descritti da Carlo Lodovico Visconti, Volume II, Tavole, Tavolo CXII ("Ulisse soto il montone"). Tipografia Tiberina di F. Setth, Rome, 1885. At the Arachne website, University of Köln Archaeological Institute.

A similar sculpture of Odysseus under a ram, dated to the 2nd century AD, is exhibited in the Aldobrandini Room of the Doria Pamphili Gallery, Rome.

On the far left, the bearded Polyphemos stands at the mouth of his cave about to throw a large rock to the right at Odysseus' departing ship with his raised right hand. With his lowered right hand he clutches the part of his cloak which covers his genitals, as if he has just thrown the garment around him in his haste to catch up with the escaping men. He also wears stylish boots or high sandals. It is notable that he has two eyes, neither of which appears injured, his pose is quite heroic, and he appears almost godlike - similar to depictions of Zeus with his thunderbolt or Poseidon with his trident. He is hardly the savage monster described by Homer. Like the other figures in the relief, his face betrays little sign of emotion, although the expression of the goddess may be one of grim determination, and Odysseus and his men look deadly serious. Behind his legs stand two of his sheep, which appear quite small, even in comparison to Odysseus and his men, who are shown at a slightly smaller scale than Polypephemos and the winged female figure.

This winged figure is thought to be an Etruscan goddess, probably Menrva, the equivalent of the Greek Athena and Roman Minerva, although she is not usually depicted with wings in Etruscan art. In Homer's The Odyssey, Athena constantly helps and supports Odysseus. She also acts as his advocate among the gods, particularly pleading to Zeus the case for his safe return home and against the vengeance of Poseidon, and intercedes on the hero's behalf. However, Homer does not mention Athena helping him in his escape from Polyphemos. It may be that she played a role in another version of the tale, or her participation in the action is an artist's invention, perhaps representing her assistance in a spiritual sense. Odysseus later tells Athena how her support lends him the courage for his most daring undertakings:

"... and stand thyself by my side, and endue me with dauntless courage, even as when we loosed the bright diadem of Troy. Wouldest thou but stand by my side, thou flashing-eyed one, as eager as thou wast then, I would fight even against three hundred men, with thee, mighty goddess, if with a ready heart thou wouldest give me aid."

Homer, The Odyssey, Book 13. At Perseus Digital Library.

The Dutch archaeologist L. J. F. Janssen (1806-1869; curator of the Leiden museum, 1835-1868) referred to the figure as a "so-called Fury", indicating that he was not entirely convinced by current theories, while some scholars have suggested that she may be the Etruscan winged daemon Vanth, who was usually associated with death and the Underworld. Despite the notion of innumerable versions and variations of the tales associated with Odysseus which may predate the age of Homer or even that of the Trojan wars, it is difficult to imagine how the Etruscans introduced either a Fury or Vanth into this tale. It has been suggested that the Fury is further fuelling Polyphemos' rage caused by the blinding and the taunting words shouted by Odysseus from the ship. Since there are few surviving written vestiges of Etruscan mythology or literature, it also seems impossible to prove one way or the other.

An almost identical figure appears on another Etruscan urn in Leiden, depicting Odysseus, Penelope and her suitors (see below), and in that context she seems most likely to be Menrva/Athena. Here she stands between Polyphemos and the ship, blocking the Cyclops' view and preventing his rock from hitting the vessel by stretching her cloak between her hands. In her raised right hand she also holds a sword. She wears a cap similar to Odysseus' conical pilos, a sleeved and girdled chiton (tunic) over a knee-length peplos (or whatever was its Etruscan equivalent), and diagonal bands, presumably to support her wings, crossed over her breast and fastened together by a rosette (see Athena with the cross-banded aegis).

To the right, the sturdy ship, which takes up around two thirds of the surface of the relief, sails to the right with a billowing sail over a very solid-looking row of waves. Aboard are six men, all dressed similarly and wearing pilos caps, but each has slightly different facial features. Their poses are tense and they all look back towards Polyphemos. One man steers with the rudder and two sit at the oars, although four oars are shown, as well as five shields fixed to the starboard side. Behind them stand another three men, shields raised and poised for action. The figure on the left, with the lower part of his face obscured by his shield, is probably Odysseus. He is the only bearded man aboard, and the only figure in the relief with his back to the viewer. The middle figure holds his shield high as if anticipating an "incoming" rock from above.

See: Leonhardt Johannes Friedrich Janssen, De etrurische grafreliëfs uit het Museum van Oudheden te Leyden, No. 34, pages 24-25 and plate XIX. H. J. Brill, Leiden, 1854. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

A similar relief on a 4th century BC Etruscan cinerary urn from Volterra, now in the Florence Archaeological Museum, shows Odysseus tied to the mast of his ship as he passes the land of the Sirens (see below).

Odysseus (Ulysses) and his companions' terrible encounter with Polyphemos and their escape by ship were also described by the Roman poets Virgil (70-19 BC) in The Aenid (Book 3, lines 580-685) and his younger contemporary Ovid (43 BC - 17/18 AD) in Metamorphoses (Book 14). Both placed the home of Polyphemos and "the whole tribe of Cyclopes... that brotherhood of Etna" (Virgil) on the east coast of Sicily around Mount Aetna, "that mountain piled on Typhoeus’ giant head, and the Cyclops’ fields, that know nothing of the plough’s use or the harrow, and owe nothing to the yoked oxen". (Metamorphoses, Book 14, lines 1-5)

Both poets also wrote that in his hasty escape from Polyphemos, Ulysses had left one of his men behind. The stranded Achaemenides finally managed to get away by hailing a passing ship, which turned out to be that of the Trojan prince Aeneas. In Ovid's version, Achaemenides accompanied Aeneas to Carthage. Eventually arriving with the Trojan refugees at Caieta (modern Gaeta) in southern Italy, he related his ordeal to Macareus of Neritos, another of those who had escaped with Ulysses, but had then left him and settled there.

"Macareus now recognised Achaemenides, among the Trojans, he, who had been given up as lost, by Ulysses, long ago, among the rocks of Aetna. Astonished to discover him, unexpectedly, still alive, he asked: 'What god or chance preserved you, Achaemenides? Why does a Trojan vessel now carry a Greek? What land is your ship bound for?'

Achaemenides, no longer clothed in rags, his shreds of clothing held together with thorns, but himself again, replied to his questions, in these words:

'If this ship is not more to me than Ithaca and my home, if I revere Aeneas less than my father, let me gaze at Polyphemus once more, with his gaping mouth dripping human blood. I can never thank Aeneas enough, even if I offered my all. Could I forget, or be ungrateful for, the fact that I speak and breathe and see the sky and the sun's glory? Aeneas granted that my life did not end in the monster's jaws, and when I leave the light of day, now, I shall be buried in the tomb, not, indeed, in its belly.

I watched as Cyclops tore an enormous boulder from the mountainside, and threw it into the midst of the waves. I watched again as he hurled huge stones, as if from a catapult, using the power of his gigantic arms, and, forgetting I was not on board the ship, I was terrified that the waves and air they displaced would sink her.

When you escaped by flight from certain death, Polyphemus roamed over the whole of Aetna, groaning, and groping through the woods with his hands, stumbling, bereft of his sight, among the rocks. Stretching out his arms, spattered with blood, to the sea, he cursed the Greek race like the plague, saying: "O, if only chance would return Ulysses to me, or one of his companions, on whom I could vent my wrath, whose entrails I could eat, whose living body I could tear with my hands, whose blood could fill my gullet, and whose torn limbs could quiver between my teeth: the damage to me of my lost sight would count little or nothing then!"

Fiercely he shouted, this and more. I was pale with fear, looking at his face still dripping with gore, his cruel hands, the empty eye-socket, his limbs and beard coated with human blood. Death was in front of my eyes, but that was still the least of evils. Now he’ll catch me, I thought, now he'll merge my innards with his own, and the image stuck in my mind of the moment when I saw him hurl two of my friends against the ground, three, four times, and crouching over them like a shaggy lion, he filled his greedy jaws with flesh and entrails, bones full of white marrow, and warm limbs.

Trembling seized me: I stood there, pale and downcast, watching him chew and spit out his bloody feast, vomiting up lumps of matter, mixed with wine. I imagined a like fate was being prepared for my wretched self. I hid for many days, trembling at every sound, scared of dying but longing to be dead, staving off hunger with acorns, and a mixture of leaves and grasses, alone, without help or hope, left to torture and death.

After a long stretch of time, I spied this ship far off, begging them by gestures to rescue me, and ran to the shore and moved their pity: a Trojan ship received a Greek!'"

In Homer's Odyssey, Book 12, the divine sorceress Circe (Κίρκη) warned Odysseus of the perils awaiting him and his men on the next part of their sea voyage. These included the Sirens, the Clashing Rocks, and the monsters Skylla (see below) and Charybdis (a whirlpool).

The enchanting singing of the Sirens (singular, Σειρήν, Seiren; plural, Σειρῆνες, Seirenes) drew seafarers to shipwreck and death on the rocky shore of their island, and Circe knew that Odysseus would not be able to resist the temptation to hear their song for himself. He followed her advice to have his companions wear earplugs of beeswax while they rowed past the Sirens' island, having had himself tied to the ship's mast so that he would not attempt to follow the bewitching music.

Homer wrote that there were two Sirens, but does not describe or name them individually. The earliest known description of them as "winged maidens, virgin daughters of Gaia", appears in Euripides' play Helen (Ἑλένη, line 167), first performed at the Dionysia in Athens in 412 BC. The works of later writers differ in their accounts of their parentage, numbers (between two and four) and names. In Greek, Etruscan and Roman art they are depicted as part woman, part bird, with several variations of forms, though always with human heads.

The Roman mythographer Hyginus (see note in Homer part 2) summarized some of the versions of the myths concerning the Sirens:

"The Sirens, daughters of the River Achelous and the Muse Melpomene, wandering away after the rape of Proserpina [Persephone], came to the land of Apollo, and there were made flying creatures by the will of Ceres [Demeter] because they had not brought help to her daughter. It was predicted that they would live only until someone who heard their singing would pass by. Ulysses proved fatal to them, for when by his cleverness he passed by the rocks where they dwelt, they threw themselves into the sea. This place is called Sirenides from them, and is between Sicily and Italy."

Hyginus, Fabulae, sections 100-149, section 141, Sirens. At the Theoi Project.

In this relief three Sirens are shown with human heads, arms and bodies, and the tails, legs and feet of birds. Standing on rocks in the sea, they wear cloaks and hold musical instruments. Odysseus, wearing a pilos and chiton, stands at the mast of his ship while two of his companions row past the rocks.

The scene on the sarcophagus may have been from one of the deceased young man's favourite tales, or have had some special significance for the family. Such motifs may have been popular for funerary art as they not only reflected the literary and artistic tastes of the families, but also illustrated heroic victories over death (see also the "Recognition of Paris" relief in Homer part 2).

Several scholars, ancient and modern, have attempted to trace Odysseus' route around the Mediterranean and identify the locations of his individual adventures. For many his encounters with the Sirens, Skylla and Charybdis occurred in the narrow Strait of Messina, between Messine (Μεσσήνη; until around 494 BC known as Zankle, Ζάγκλη [7]; today Messina), at the northeast tip of Sicily and the "toe" of the "boot" of the Italian mainland (see photo below). The three kilometre wide strait was evidently feared by ancient mariners because of its currents, whirlpools and heavy storms. Pausanias added swarms of monsters to its dangers.

"The sea in fact at this strait is the stormiest of seas; it is made rough by winds bringing waves from both sides, from the Adriatic and the other sea, which is called the Tyrrhenian, and even if there be no gale blowing, even then the strait of itself produces a very violent swell and strong currents. So many monsters swarm in the water that even the air over the sea is infected with their stench. Accordingly a shipwrecked man has not even a hope left of getting out of the strait alive. If it was here that disaster overtook the ship of Odysseus, nobody could believe that he swam out alive to Italy, were it not that the benevolence of the gods makes all things easy."

On the body of the amphora are the faint remains of a man sitting in a sailing ship with oars, which is depicted at a smaller scale than the sailor. To the right of this scene, below one of the handles, is a Siren (see photo right). To the left, below the other handle (not visible in the museum display case), is a winged horse, presumably Pegasus, and an upright fish. On the back of the vase is a large cat resembling a tiger (see photo below). Above and below this frieze, in the bands on the shoulder and lower body of the amphora, are fish and sea creatures. On each side of the neck, between the handles, is a sheep, above one of which (see photo below) is what appears to be the Etruscan letter khe (similar in form to the Greek Ψ, psi).

The fact that the Siren appears behind the ship may signify that the sailor has escaped the danger and is able to sail on, but there is no certainty that the relationship of the separate images were deliberately designed to be read in this way.

Described by the museum as a "marine adventure", the paintings of the ship and Siren may comprise the earliest known representation of the Homeric episode of Odysseus and the Sirens. The oldest representation of a Homeric theme so far discovered in an Etruscan context is "the Aristonothos Krater", also found in a tomb at Cerveteri and dated to around 680-630 BC. One side depicts the blinding of Polyphemos which is also shown on a "white-on-red" pithos, perhaps from Cerveteri, made around 650-625 BC (see above).

Some scholars have proposed that such artefacts indicate that Homeric tales may have been known to the Etruscans by the 7th century BC, although motifs copied from imported Greek works may have had a different significance for aristocratic customers in Etruria.

The fish and marine creatures in the upper and lower bands are appropriate to the two main images, however the feline, winged horse and fish in the central band may be merely decorative space-fillers, typical of Archaic ceramic painting of the Orientalizing period (8th - 6th centuries BC). Etruscans may have considered lions, leopards and other large cats to be as fabulous as winged horses, and the "stripes" may just indicate a shaggy fur. Europeans are thought to have first encountered tigers at the time of Alexander the Great's campaigns in Asia, and they began appearing in western art during the Roman Imperial period when they were among the exotic animals imported for games in arenas.

Little has been published concerning this amphora, and the few authors who briefly mention it refer to:

Marina Cristofani Martelli (editor), La ceramica degli Etruschi: La pittura vascolare, page 10, figs. 17-18. Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, 1987.

Martelli appears to have been the first to attribute the vase painting to the Painter of the Siren Attachment (Pittore della Sirena-Assurattasche), about whom there is also very little literature. His name is derived from the German word Assurattaschen (Assur attachments), used by the archaeologist Adolf Furtwängler to describe the protomes (front parts) of Sirens and other creatures designed as attachments for ancient bronze vessels, particularly cauldrons (see photo below), because of their similarity to depictions of the Assyrian god Assur.

Examination of details of the ship may reveal more about the imagery of the amphora, however I have yet to find more information on this specialist aspect. The ship is briefly described in a catalogue of representations of ships in Etruscan art in:

Olaf Höckmann, Etruskische Schiffahrt, catalogue No. CA 5, pages 278-279. In: Jahrbuch des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums Mainz, 48,1 (2001), pages 227-308. PDF at Heidelberg University Journals.

A Siren on a Corinthian black-figure spherical aryballos.
Around 600 BC.

Studiendepot Antike, Skulpturensammlung, Albertinum, Dresden.

The ceramics and other ancient objects displayed in the temporary
"Studiendepot" room (open Saturday and Sunday only) are not
labelled, and it is not possible to view the other sides of the vases.

The form and painting style are similar to that of an
aryballos with a depiction three Sirens in the Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston. Inv. No. 21.279. Height 14.1 cm.

Fragment of a statue of a Siren.

Parian work. 550-500 BC.

One of the few surviving examples of 1st century BC wall painting, the landscape with figures is thought to have been inspired by Hellenistic models of the 2nd century BC. It has also been compared to frescoes found at the House of Livia on the Palatine Hill, dated around 30 BC.

Skylla (Σκύλλα), who attacked Odysseus' ship in the straits between Italy and Sicily (Homer, Odyssey, Book 12), is depicted as a giant naked female as far as the waist, below which sprout the heads and bodies of dog-like creatures (in modern Greek σκύλα, skyla, means bitch, female dog). The remains of this figure and those below make her human-like part appear attractive, quite harmless, even benign.

Fragment of a marble staue of Skylla
or a Nereid from Ostia, near Rome.

Circa 150 AD. Found near the Nymphaeum
(II,VII,6), at the west of the theatre, Ostia.

A round ("discoid") terracotta loom weight with a depiction of Skylla.
With each of her outstretched hand she holds one of her fish tails.
Above her head is an unidentified object. Such weights for
weaving looms were often dedicated at sanctuaries.

Made on Sicily around 400-100 BC. From ancient
Akragas or Gela. Diameter 7.94 cm (3 1/8 inches).

"Silver tetradrachm of Agrigentum, selected by permission from the valuable collection of Lord Northwick.

The magnificent workmanship of this coin abundantly displays the taste of the Agrigentines: the Scylla and the Crab (above which ΑΚΡΑΓΑΝΤΙΝΟΝ, imperfectly expressed in the engraving, is distinctly legible) seem aptly to designate the inaccessible coast and treacherous rocks by which their fertile and inviting territory is defended.

In the two eagles on the obverse, the one uttering the piercing shriek so often heard by the traveller in those regions, the other devouring its prey; the imperial dominion, affected by the ambitious Agrigentines, and their triumph over their enemies, may be signified."

Marble head of mourning Penelope.

Roman, after a model of the 5th century BC. Perhaps from a
funerary statue. Height 26.6 cm, width 22.7 cm, depth 22.2 cm.

The statue type is thought to have shown Penelope sitting
on a stool (diphros), under which stood a basket of wool.

The so-called "Penelope seduta" marble statue, thought
to depict mourning Penelope, but perhaps from a funerary
monument. The head does not belong to the statue which
has been extensively restored.

Provenance unknown. Roman, 1st century AD, after
a model of the mid 5th century BC. Height 115 cm.

Galleria delle Statue, Museo Pio Clementino, Vatican Museums.
Inv. No. 754. Purchased in 1884 from Malpieri, Rome.

On his return home to the island of Ithaka, Odysseus learns that during his twenty-year absence many have considered him dead. A group of arrogant and parasitic male nobles have gathered at his palace, each vying to be chosen as Penelope's new husband and the next king of Ithaka. Athena informs him of "the shameless wooers, who now for three years have been lording it in thy halls, wooing thy godlike wife, and offering wooers' gifts. And she, as she mournfully looks for thy coming, offers hopes to all, and has promises for each man, sending them messages, but her mind is set on other things." The Odyssey, Book 13.

Aware of the fate of Agamemnon, who was murdered on his return from Troy by Aigisthos, the lover of his wife Clytaemnestra (see below), the wily Odysseus keeps his return a secret. Athena, promising to stand by him, magically transforms his appearance to that of an aged beggar, so that he can enter his palace incognito, observe the goings-on, and wait for an opportunity to destroy the suitors. Unaware of all this, the beleaguered Penelope finally announces that she will marry the man who wins an archery contest, using an old bow of Odysseus which only he could string. The hero, of course, wins the competition, reveals his identity and massacres the suitors.

On the relief, Odysseus, disguised as an old beggar on the far left, is naked apart from a cloak over his shoulders, and holds a gnarled walking stick with both hands. He sits humbly on a log or rock, far below the level of the other figures in their luxury. A winged female figure stands close to his left side with her right arm around him, her hand resting supportively on his right shoulder. She is dressed in the same way as the goddess in the relief of the Polyphemos scene (see above), and this is most probably Menrva (Athena). Her left hand is raised to the top of her head, perhaps a gesture expressing her reaction to the insufferable scene she is witnessing.

In the centre, four men, representing the suitors, recline on a long couch in the traditional poses of banqueters (symposiasts). The figures on the left and right hold deep wine bowls, and the second from right holds high a rhyton (drinking horn). The man second from left also raises his right arm, but it is unclear what he is holding; he may be pulling at the edge of his mantle. In his left hand he holds a round object (a bowl, cake or loaf?). In front of the couch is a round table with three legs in the form of animal legs with cloven hooves, on which stand a wine bowl and two kantharoi (wine cups). To the left of the table stands a diminuitive wine-pourer.

All the figures in the relief look towards Penelope, who sits to the right on a wide throne or couch, her feet resting on an footstool. She is flanked by two women, companions, maidservants or slaves. The woman to the left of Penelope holds a box with an open lid, into which the queeen dips her right hand. Whatever she is about to take out, a sweetmeat or other delicacy, it may represent a lot: her choice has been made. The three women are subtly separated in space from the suitors.

In comparison to many other Etruscan cinerary urn reliefs, the scene is relatively restrained. It is not the usual action scene, and apparently depicts a conventional banquet observed by an old man and a supernatural being. However, the Etruscan viewer knew that this was just the deceptively tranquil prelude to a terrible retributive bloodbath, a typically Homeric act of vengeance, representing a form of justice and restoration of proper order, not only sanctioned but often demanded by their gods. The sculptors who carved these reliefs were very skilful at employing a type of visual shorthand, reducing complex scenes to the minimum in terms of figures and details in order to fit the rectricted dimensions of the urns.

For the rich and powerful families who were commissioners or purchasers of such works, these reliefs are thought to have been an affirmation of their belief in such a system of eternal justice and the triumph of the will over insuperable odds, and perhaps over death itself: immortality in alabaster. As with tomb monuments of many other cultures, ancient and modern, they present statements of faith and proclaim the cultural, intellectual, spiritual and moral values and aspirations of the deceased and the society to which they belonged.

See: Leonhardt Johannes Friedrich Janssen, De etrurische grafreliëfs uit het Museum van Oudheden te Leyden, No. 35, pages 25-26 and plate XX. H. J. Brill, Leiden, 1854. At the Heidelberg University Digital Library.

The drawing of the relief (plate XX, 35a) shows the third suitor from the left and Penelope's two maid servants with their heads missing. It is unclear whether the heads now on the relief are modern additions.

* The dimensions are those given in the searchable Collections database of the Leiden museum:

I know this super highway
This bright familiar sun
I guess that I'm the lucky one
Who wrote that tired sea song
Set on this peaceful shore
You think you've heard this one before

Well the danger on the rocks is surely past
Still I remain tied to the mast
Could it be that I have found my home at last
Home at last

She serves the smooth retsina
She keeps me safe and warm
It's just the calm before the storm
Call in my reservation
So long hey thanks my friend
I guess I'll try my luck again

1. Depictions of the Trojan Horse in ancient Greek art

1. Fragments of a large bronze fibula (fastening pin) made in Boeotia, central Greece, around 680 BC. Said to be from Thebes. The lunette shaped fibula has hammered and incised designs on both sides, including what are thought to be mythological scenes, and what may be the earliest surviving depiction of the Trojan Horse.

Side A: In the centre is an elaborate rosette with twenty-four points. Left of the rosette, a small male figure fighting a six headed snake-like creature, probably Herakles and the Lernaean Hydra; large fish and birds in the field. To the right of the rosette are the hind legs of a horse on wheels, presumably the Wooden Horse of Troy, with a rectangular body; a foreleg is visible on a non-joining fragment of the plate attached to the arm; large birds in the field to the left of the horse, with a smaller one underneath.

Side B: Left of the rosettes are male warriors with round shields, spears, greaves (?), and crested helmets facing right; small to medium-sized birds in the field; right of the central motif is a mix of animals and people: a lion facing a human; a standing woman holding a cup (?) facing a large horse; a man in a boat (?).

Also an Indo-Greek relief on a grey schist panel made in Gandhara (modern northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan), 2nd - 3rd century AD, depicts men pushing a horse on wheels to the right. In front of the horse a man with a spear blocks the way to the frame of a gateway, probably representing the gates of Troy, in which a woman (perhaps Cassandra) stands with raised arms. Height 16.2 cm, width 32.3 cm.
British Museum. Inv. No. 1990,1013.1 (not on display). Purchased in 1990 from Verner Wylie.

2. Alan Johnston on Odysseus blinding Polyphemos

Alan Johnston, Pre-Classical Greece, in John Boardman (editor), The Oxford history of classical art, page 32. Oxford University Press, 1993.

3. The blinding of Polyphemos in Catania

See:

Francesco Inghirami, Galleria Omerica, o raccolta di monumenti antichi, esibita al cav. Francesco Inghirami, per servire allo studio dell'Iliade e dell'Odissea, Vol. Terzo, pages 144-145 and Tavolo XXXVII. Poligrafia Fiesolana, 1836.

Franceso Di Paola Bertucci, Illustrazione di un basso-rilievo conservato nel museo dei Benedettini di Catania (Estratta dal Giornale del Gabinetto Letterario dell'Accademia Gioenia T. X, Bim. v.). dai torchi dell'Accademia Gioenia presso i Fratelli Sciuto, Catania, 1845.

4. The Polyphemos statue group in Ephesus

At the time of the statue group's discovery the fountain was thought to be part of the Pollio Monument (the so-called Pollio Nympheaum), the tomb of Gaius Sextilius Pollio, built in the first half of the 1st century AD. Archaeologists subsequently established that the Pollio Monument and the later Domitian Fountain were two separate monuments standing next to each other.

See:

Bernard Andreae, Odysseus: Archäologie des europäischen Menschenbildes, Chapter VI, Odysseus und Dionysos: Der Polyphem-Giebel von Ephesos. Societäts-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1982. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

5. The "wineskin carrier" heads from Tivoli and Sperlonga

See: Bernard Andreae, Odysseus: Archäologie des europäischen Menschenbildes, page 135. Societäts-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1982. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

6. The Polyphemos mosaic in the Villa Romana, Piazza Amerina, Sicily

The three-eyed Polyphemos sits on the edge of a bed-like, flat-topped rock in the middle of his cave, which signified by an arch of boulders around the top and sides of the scene. The bearded, long-haired, muscular (and actually quite handsome) giant is naked apart from an animal-skin cloak fastened by the knotted fore-legs below his throat. He is disemboweling a large ram which lies over his left knee, as he extends his right hand to the karater of wine Odysseus is bringing him from the left. Two of the hero's men behind him prepare more wine, and in front of the Cyclops stand three sheep and a goat.

See:

Dirk Booms and Peter Higgs, Sicily: culture and conquest, Fig. 4, page 22. Published to accompany the exhibition of the same name in the British Museum, 21 April - 14 August 2016.

Diederik Burgerdijk et al (editors), Sicily and the sea, page 47. W Books for Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam, 2017.

Confusingly, this is exactly the same book as War and storm: Treasures from the sea around Sicily. Both were published in conjunction with an exhibition which had different titles at its various European venues: Sicily and the sea at Allard Pierson Museum, Amsterdam, 9 October - 17 April 2016; Storms, war and shipwrecks: Treasures from the Sicilian seas at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 16 June - 25 September 2016. The exhibition subsequently moved, under different names, to the Maritime Museum, Palermo, the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen and finally to the LVR Landesmuseum, Bonn.

Like the British Museum's Sicily: culture and conquest, the richly illustrated, large format book is not an exhibition catalogue: it does not lead the visitor through the show or explain the displayed objects; many of the exhibits are not illustated or even mentioned, and many of the objects discussed and shown have no direct connection with the exhibition. The book follows the recent trend of "accompanying" publications, providing more general, contextual information concerning the show's theme, in this case consisting of several short essays or articles, each written by a different author, on various aspects of Sicilian hitory and culture.

7. Zankle / Messine

8. Konstantinos Karapanos and Dodona

A number of scholars and early visitors to Greece had attempted to find the location of ancient Dodona before it was discovered in 1832 by Christopher Wordsworth (see note on Athens Acropolis page 4).

Konstantinos Karapanos (Κωνσταντίνος Καραπάνος, 1840-1914) was a Greek businessman and banker, born in Artos, northwestern Greece, and educated in Athens and Paris. He earned a fortune with his enterprises in Ottoman Turkey, including his concession for the first horse-drawn tramway line in Constantinople (Istanbul). The Société des Tramvays de Constantinople was awarded the concession to build and operate the tramway in 1869, and it began operating in 1871.

Like Heinrich Schliemann, he used part of his wealth to indulge in amateur archaeology, and excavated at Dodona 1875-1877, when northern Greece was still part of Turkey. He kept most of the finds himself, adding them to the collection of objects he had acquired elsewhere. He took them to Paris, where they were exhibited in 1878, and in the same year his report of the excavations was published there.

Constantin Carapanos, Dodone et ses ruines. Librairie Hachette, Paris, 1878. At Heidelberg University Digital Library. In two volumes: Volume I, text; Volume II, plates, with maps of the area of Dodona and the site, and drawings of the finds. A fine drawing of the Skylla plaque on plate XVIII, 1.

He also excavated in Corfu, where in 1879 he purchased a field in which a sanctuary of Artemis and around 5000 terracotta figurines of the goddess were discovered (see the note in Medusa part 3).

9. Skylla loom weight from Sicily in the British Museum

This is one of several loom weights among the large number of ancient artefacts from Sicily donated to the British Museum by the diplomat, explorer, excavator and collector George Dennis (1814-1898). He excavated in Sicily but also purchased several objects from locals, so that in many cases the provenance and archaeological contexts remain unclear.

Four of the loom weights are currently on display in the museum. As well as the Skylla weight, two are decorated with Gorgoneions (see Medusa part 7), and the fourth has the head of a bearded male, presumably a god.

See also a terracotta figure of Hermes Kriophoros from Gela, donated to the museum by Dennis, on the Hermes page.

Although the museum's labelling dates the loom weights to around 400-100 BC, and states that they are either from ancient Akragas (then known as Grigenti; today Agrigento) or Gela (then known as Terranuova; the modern town was founded as Terranova di Sicilia by Emperor Frederick II in 1233 AD, and renamed Gela in 1928), according to the British Museum's online Collections database, they are from Agrigento and were probably made during the Roman period, 2nd century BC - 2nd century AD. The database also gives a diameter of 7.62 centimetres for all the weights on display. However, they are clearly of different sizes. I have taken the diameters from:

Henry Beauchamp Walters, Catalogue of the Terracottas in the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum, Nos. E 162 - E 167, page 449. British Museum, London, 1903. At the Internet Archive.

For further information about ancient loom weights, see for example:

Alexandra Sofroniew, Women’s work: The dedication of loom weights in the sanctuaries of southern Italy. In: Amy C. Smith and Marianne E. Bergeron (editors), The Gods of small things, Part 3, Small by nature, pages 191-209. Pallas, Revue d'études antiques, No. 86. Presses Universitaires du Midi, 2011. At OpenEdition (website in French and English).

In a recent article, Francesco Meo of the University of Salento discussed the use of the Latin term oscillum, particularly by Italian archaeologists, to describe circular and semicircular loom weights, as opposed to "peso da telaio" (loom weight) used for the traditional truncated pyramid and cone shapes.

"The Roman oscilla most probably derives from the Aἰῶραι, small images related to Dionysus hung on trees during the Aἰῶρα, an Athenian public feast. They were believed to purify the air as they swung in the wind. Both the Greek and the Latin words refer to objects used during particular sacred feasts, in the first case public and in the second case private, inside villae."

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