The Sanctuary and Temple of Dionysos Eleuthereos

The temenos (τήμενος, sacred area) was surrounded by a peribolos (περίβολος, perimeter wall) and was entered by a propylon (monumental gateway) at the east side. The road leading from the city to the propylon became known as the Street of Tripods (see below).

Directly in front (south) of the theatre stood the Earlier Temple of Dionysos Eleuthereos (Διονύσος Ελευθερέως, Dionysos the Liberator), to whom the sanctuary and the theatre were dedicated.

At the east side of this small Doric temple, built around 550-500 BC, was an entrance porch (pronaos) supported by two columns and side walls (distyle in antis), and a cella which housed the cult statue (ξόανον, xoanon) of Dionysos Eleuthereos [7]. Only the foundation and part of the krepis (stepped platform) of this temple have survived. The epiphet Eleuthereos may derive from the story that the Athenians took the statue from Eleutherai (Ἐλευθεραί), near the border between northern Attica and Boeotia, on a plain shared with neighbouring Plataea (Πλάταια).

"In this plain is a temple of Dionysus, from which the old wooden image was carried off to Athens. The image at Eleutherae at the present day is a copy of the old one."

Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book 1, chapter 38, section 8.

The Later Temple of Dionysos (see the model below) was built around 350 BC to the south of the earlier one. This larger, tetrastyle prostyle temple, with 6 columns at the entrance on the eastern end, housed the chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statue of Dionysos made by Alkamenes in the 2nd half of the 5th century BC (Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book 1, chapter 20, section 3). The later temple was not built to replace the earlier, which remained in use. The foundation and the base of the cult statue have survived, but are usually covered for protection.

The cavea was extended further up the south slope of the Acropolis, and an extra upper level was added, separated from the lower level by a diazoma (διάζωμα, girdle) walkway (see theatre terms below), which was part of the peripatos, the circuit path around the foot of the Acropolis (gallery pages 2, 4, 5 and 34). The nick on the east (right) side of the cavea was due to the space required between the theatre and the neighbouring Odeion of Pericles (not shown on model, see above).

A skene (stage building) was built to the south of the orchestra, behind it from the point of view of the audience. It shared its back wall with a Doric stoa (colonnaded walkway), around 62.3 metres long and 8.1 m wide, which ran from east to west between the front (south) of the theatre and the Earlier Temple. It had a 12 metre long room at the west end, with an opening on the side leading from the single-aisled colonnade of 22 columns which was open to the south. The architect and archaeologist John Travlos suggested that the stoa may have had two storeys. Little remains of these buildings, which were built over during the Roman period, and they have been "blocked in" by the model makers.

The age old pastimes of storytelling, music-making, dancing and singing have always been practised wherever people gather together. As forms of worship or religious celebration, particular places in or or near a settlement became favoured, where the community could participate or sit and view performances, that is songs and dances by individuals and groups rather than collectively. Hillsides were well-suited as seating places on which ascending rows of spectatators could get a good view. The Greeks called the performance area the orchestra (ὀρχήστρα), meaning dancing place, which in ancient Greek theatres was usually circular.

The Greek institution of theatre evolved from forms of singing and dancing during festivals in honour of the wine god Dionysus, which included processions to the theatron (θέατρον, viewing place) where the festivals were held. A thymele (θυμέλη), an altar for sacrifices to Dionysus, stood in the centre of the orchestra.

Eventually wooden seating and orchestra floorboards were built, then later replaced by stone fittings which became more elaborate and were decorated by reliefs, statues and inscriptions. As the peformance of dramas by actors (an actor was known in Greek as ὑποκριτής, hypokrites, literally answerer) became more important, a skene (σκηνή, literally tent or hut; the root of the English words scene and scenery) was built behind the orchestra for storing props and costumes, and as a place where performers could retire between scenes or to change costumes. A raised platform in front of the skene, known as the proskenion (προσκήνιον), provided an extra performance space and was the forerunner of the modern theatrical stage.

The audience seating area of Greek theatres, the theatron itself, is usually referred to by the Latin word cavea (hollow, cavity, enclosure), the equivalent of the modern auditorium. It was usually a little wider than a semi-circle, and the seating became divided into wedge-shaped blocks known as kerkides (κερκίδες; sigular, κερκίς, kerkis), by staired aisles called klimakes (κλίμακες; singular, κλίμαξ, klimax, stairway or ladder). Where there was more than one row of kerkides, the upper and lower levels were separated by a walkway known as a diazoma (διάζωμα, girdle). See the diazoma of the Hellenistic Theatre of Dionysos in the photo above. The theatre was entered by the paradoi (πάροδος, parados, entrance; plural πάροδοι), either side of the orchestra, at the ends of the cavea.

Literally the best seat in the house, in the centre of the theatre's front row. The backrest and the seat support are decorated with reliefs. Along the bottom of the seat support is the inscription:

ἱερέως Διονύσου Ἐλευθερέως

Inscription IG II 2 5022.

Image source: Adolf Boetticher, Die Akropolis von Athen: nach den Berichten der Alten und den neusten Erforschungen, Fig. 115, page 245. Julius Springer, Berlin, 1888. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

The hyposkenion (ὑποσκήνιον, below the stage) was the area beneath the proskenion (προσκήνιον), the wooden and later stone platform in front of the skene (stage building) of Greek and Roman theatres. Its front was often decorated by columns, pillars or walls and decorated with reliefs or statues. Larger stages even had doorways beneath for entrances and exits by the performers.

The late Roman period proskenion of the Theatre of Dionysos ran along the south side of the orchestra, that is behind it from the audience's point of view. Only part of the west side has survived, with four marble steps steps leading up from the orchestra to what was the centre of the stage, and a hyposkenion decorated with four reliefs and two statues of Silens. The stage is known as the "Phaidros Bema" (or "Bema of Phaidros") due to an inscription with a metrical dedication at the top of the steps, claiming that it was built by the archon Phaidros (Φαῖδρος), son of Zoilos [11].

σοὶ τόδε καλὸν ἔτευξε, φιλόργιε, βῆμα θεήτρου
Φαῖδρος Ζωίλου βιοδώτορος Ἀτθίδος ἀρχός.

For you, lover of the sacred rites, this beautiful stage has been built
by Phaidros, son of Zoilos, archon of life-giving Athens.

Inscription IG II 2 5021 (ICG 1877, 2015).

The dates of the inscription and the proskenion are still a matter of debate, with theories ranging from around the mid 4th to early 5th century AD [12]. It has been suggested that during this late period in the theatre's existence the stage was used by orators to practise their "glib and oily art". The quality of workmanship of the stage has been described as "inferior", and the poetry of the inscription "labored archaizing" and "clumsy". The reliefs below it, however, are accomplished and original, and the two statues of Silens are quite charming. The sculptures are thought to have been made in the 2nd century AD, perhaps during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117-138 AD), and to have been taken from an earlier monument, which may have also been in the sanctuary.

The four surviving reliefs, on separate marble panels, depict episodes from the life of Dionysus. The now missing heads of the figures had been cut off and affixed to the cornices beneath the floor of the stage, presumably so that the panels fitted to give the platform the required height. The reliefs, from left (east) to right in photo above, depict:

1. The birth of Dionysus. Present height 78 cm, width 188 cm.
2. The entrance of Dionysus into Attica. Present height 78 cm, width 176 cm.
3. The sacred marriage of Dionysus and the Basilinna (wife of archon Basileus).
    Present height 76-78 cm, width 178.5 cm.
4. The Enthronement of Dionysus. Present height 70-80 cm, width 181 cm. [13]

All the relief slabs are between 24.5 and 26 cm thick.

On the left (east) end of the bema, to the left of the steps which were originally at the centre of the stage, and between reliefs 2 and 3 are the two statues (or high reliefs) of Silens. Each of the bearded figures is naked apart from an animal skin around his shoulders with the beast's forelegs tied beneath his throat. They kneel on one knee and support the weight of the stage floor with their shoulders and one raised hand, which is covered by part of the animal skin to facilitate the task.

A marble statue of Papposilenos wearing
a hairy sheepskin garment, from the
Roman period skene (stage building)
of the Theatre of Dionysos.

1st or 2nd century AD.
Height 150 cm, width 63 cm.

Colossal marble statue of a naked
Papposilenos, probably in the pose of Atlas.

From the Roman period skene (stage
building) of the Theatre of Dionysos, Athens.
1st or 2nd century AD.

Two of several surviving fragmentary statues of Papposilenos from the Theatre of Dionysos, now displayed in a small open-air area between the entrance to the archaeological site of the South Slope of Acropolis and the theatre, in which other ancient inscriptions, statues and architectural parts are exhibited (see the base of a statue of Thespis below).

The statue on the left (NK 2295) was found at the left end of the "Phaidros Bema", between one of the crouching Silen statues (see above) and steps up to the stage.

Silenos (Σειληνός, Seilenos; Latin, Silenus), was the oldest of the Silens, the tutor of Dionysus, in whose cult Greek theatre developed. He led the god's thiasos (retinue), which included Pan, Maenads, Satyrs and Silens. He is also referred to as Papposilenos (Παπποσειληνός, Father Silenos), particularly in the context of the theatre.

Pausanias noticed a stone near the Propylaia of the Acropolis, on which according to legend, Silenos rested when he came with Dionysus to Attica. As confused as most of us about the origin of Silens and Satyrs, the travel writer made some enquiries into the subject:

"There is also a smallish stone, just large enough to serve as a seat to a little man. On it legend says Silenus rested when Dionysus came to the land. The oldest of the Satyrs they call Sileni.

Wishing to know better than most people who the Satyrs are, I have inquired from many about this very point. Euphemus the Carian said that on a voyage to Italy he was driven out of his course by winds and was carried into the outer sea, beyond the course of seamen.

He affirmed that there were many uninhabited islands, while in others lived wild men. The sailors did not wish to put in at the latter, because, having put in before, they had some experience of the inhabitants, but on this occasion they had no choice in the matter.

The islands were called Satyrides by the sailors, and the inhabitants were red haired, and had upon their flanks tails not much smaller than those of horses. As soon as they caught sight of their visitors, they ran down to the ship without uttering a cry and assaulted the women in the ship. At last the sailors in fear cast a foreign woman on to the island. Her the Satyrs outraged not only in the usual way, but also in a most shocking manner."

The inscription on the altar states that it was dedicated by the brothers Pistokrates and Apollodoros, who as young men were pompostoloi, conductors of the procession in the City Dionysia festival, and were later appointed as archons.

Πιστοκράτης καὶ Ἀπολλόδωρος
Σατύρου Αὐρίδαι πομποστολήσαντες
καὶ ἄρχοντες γενόμενοι τοῦ γένους
τοῦ Βακχιαδῶν vvv ἀνέθηκαν.

Pistokrates and Apollodoros, sons of Satyros of the deme of
Auridai, and of the race of the Bacchiades, while they were
conductors of the procession and archons, dedicated it.

Inscription IG II 2 2949

The location of the small Attic Deme Auridai (Αὐρίδαι), which belonged to the Hippothontis tribe (Ἱπποθωντὶς φυλή), is unknown. For discussion of the inscription, its dating and the "race" or "genos" Bacchiades (Βακχιάδαι), see:

Head of mature, bearded Dionysus.
Parian marble. Early Archaistic work,
circa 480-470 BC. Found south of
the Acropolis, Athens.

Marble head of a statue of a
singing or talking Dionysus,
wearing a mitra headband.

Roman period, after a Greek original
from 270-250 BC. Height 41 cm,
width 29.8 cm, depth 36.2 cm.

Altes Museum, Berlin. Inv. No. Sk 610.
Purchased for the museum by Gustav
Friedrich Waagen in 1842 from the
Riccardi Collection, Florence.

This is one of several ancient copies, of
which the "Head from the South Slope"
of the Acropolis is considered the most
excellent. The model may have been a
famous Hellenistic statue by Skopas in
the Sanctuary of Dionysos Eleuthereos.

Marble statue of the "Dionysos-Sardanapalos" type from the Theatre of Dionysos.

As with other statues of this type, Dionysus is depicted with a long wavy
beard and tresses, and wrapped in a chiton (tunic) and a himation (cloak).

1st century AD, "after a Praxitelean original, circa 325-300 BC". Restored
1918-1920 from several fragments found separately between 1865 and
after 1891 at the Theatre of Dionysos. Pentelic marble. Height 123 cm.

This statue base is displayed in a small open-air area between the entrance to the archaeological site of the South Slope of Acropolis and the Theatre of Dionysos, in which other ancient inscriptions, statues and architectural parts are exhibited. See the statues of Papposilenos above.

According to ancient sources, Thespis was from the deme of Ikaria (Ἰκάρια, today Dionysos, Διόνυσος), in northeastern Attica, where winemaking was first introduced to Attica by Dionysus (see Dionysus in the MFP People section). He was said to have written several tragic plays, and to have been the first actor, that is the first person to perform as a character in a drama, rather than merely telling a story through narration, singing or dancing. He also toured, travelling in a cart with other actors.

"Thespis is said to have invented a new kind of tragedy, and to have carried his pieces about in carts, which [certain strollers], who had their faces besmeared with lees of wine, sang and acted. After him Aeschylus, the inventor of the vizard mask and decent robe, laid the stage over with boards of a tolerable size, and taught to speak in lofty tone, and strut in the buskin. To these succeeded the old comedy, not without considerable praise: but its personal freedom degenerated into excess and violence, worthy to be regulated by law; a law was made accordingly, and the chorus, the right of abusing being taken away, disgracefully became silent."

Marble Portrait bust of the
Athenian tragedian Aeschylos
(Αἰσχύλος, circa 525-456 BC).

Roman period copy of a
4th century BC Greek original.

Neues Museum, Berlin.
Inv. No. Sk 313.

Bronze and copper portrait head,
known as "the Arundel Head",
thought to depict the Athenian playwright Sophokles (Σοφοκλῆς,
circa 496-406 BC). Originally part
of a statue, 300-100 BC, probably
from Smyrna (today Izmir). [14]

British Museum, London.
Inv. No. 1760,0919.1 (Bronze 847).

Marble Portrait bust of the
Athenian tragedian Euripides
(Εὐριπίδης, circa 480-406 BC).

Roman copy of a 4th century BC
Greek original. One of over 30
known copies of the "Farnese
type". From Cumae, Italy.
Height 3.2 cm.

Neues Museum, Berlin.
Inv. No. Sk 297. Purchased 1864
in Naples by Wolfgang Helbig.

Although the statue's pedestal, inscribed with Menander's name, is original (291/290 BC; excavated in 1862), the statue itself is one of a number of modern composite plaster cast reconstructions made by Klaus Fittschen for the University Collection of the Archaeological Institute of Göttingen, Germany (Inv. No. A 1497a). The original torso is in Naples and the head in Venice. Another copy, also made in Göttingen (completed 2009), can be seen in the Abguss-Sammlung (cast collection) of Marburg University.

"In the theatre the Athenians have portrait statues of poets, both tragic and comic, but they are mostly of undistinguished persons. With the exception of Menander no poet of comedy represented here won a reputation, but tragedy has two illustrious representatives, Euripides and Sophocles.

There is a legend that after the death of Sophocles the Lacedaemonians [Spartans] invaded Attica, and their commander saw in a vision Dionysus, who bade him honour, with all the customary honours of the dead, the new Siren. He interpreted the dream as referring to Sophocles and his poetry, and down to the present day men are wont to liken to a Siren whatever is charming in both poetry and prose.

The likeness of Aeschylus is, I think, much later than his death and than the painting which depicts the action at Marathon. Aeschylus himself said that when a youth he slept while watching grapes in a field, and that Dionysus appeared and bade him write tragedy. When day came, in obedience to the vision, he made an attempt and hereafter found composing quite easy."

Inscription IG II 2 3779

The victories of Nikokles:

Left side: the [...]leia; the Hekatomboia; Isthmia; the Basileia of Macedon.

Front: Nikokles son of Aristokles. Three victories at the Pythia in Delphi; the Great Panathenaia in Athens; the Lenaia (a festival of Dionysus in Athens), with a dithyramb; another three at the Pythia.

Right side: the Basileia of Alexandria; Ileia; Basileia; Asklepieia.

The inscription does not mention the discipline for which he won these contests, but such a famous musician would have been known to those who saw the statue, which may have depicted him playing his instrument and/or singing. It is thought that he was probably a kitharodos (κιθαρῳδός), a singer who accompanied himself on the kithara.

Διομήδης.
Δημήτριος Πτελεάσιος
ἐποίησεν.

Diomedes. Demetrios Pteleasios made it.

Inscription IG II 2 4257

The sculptor Demetrios Pteleasios may be the Demetrios Philonos Pteleasios (Δημήτριος Φίλωνος Πτελεάσιος, Demetrios son of Philon, from Ptelea) known from signatures on other statue bases, including one found near the Eleusinion, south of the Athenian Agora.

Philopappos (Γαίος Ιούλιος Αντίοχος Επιφανής Φιλόπαππος, 65-116 AD), a Greek prince of the Kingdom of Commagene, Syria, is known from his marble tomb monument, the Philopappos Monument, on Mouseion Hill (λόφος Μουσών, also known as the Hill of the Muses, and in modern Greek as Philopappos Hill, Λόφος Φιλοπάππου), southwest of the Acropolis.

He was the grandson of Antiochos IV Epiphanes (Γάιος Ἰούλιος Ἀντίοχος ὀ Ἐπιφανής, before 17 - after 72 AD, reigned 38-72 AD), the last king of Commagene, a client of Rome. Suspecting a planned rebellion, Emperor Vespasian deposed Antiochos in 72 AD and Commagene was absorbed into the Roman province of Syria. However, Vespasian forgave Antiochos, and his family moved to Rome where they became wealthy and respected Roman citizens.

During the reign of Trajan (98-117 AD), Philopappos became a member of the Praetorian Guard, a senator and in 109 AD served as suffect consul. At some point he moved to Athens, where he lived for the rest of his life, acquiring Athenian citizenship as a member of the Besa (Βησα) phyle. He served as an archon, an agonothetes (magistrate of games) and choregos. He was acquainted with several prominent Greeks, including Plutarch.

Philopappos' younger sister Julia Balbilla (Ἰουλία Βαλβίλλα, 72 - after 130 AD) became a poet at the court of Emperor Hadrian.

The inscription (see image below) states that the Oinis (Οἰνηὶς) phyle honoured the archon and agonothetes Philopappos of the Besa phyle for directing a winning chorus during the Dionysia festival, and for his deeds as benefactor (Εὐεργέτης). The chorus was rehearsed by Moiragenes (Μοιραγένης), and the choregos was Boulon, son of Moiragenes (Βούλων οἱ Μοιραγένους).

The Greek text of the inscription:

1. Dionysus or Dionysos

On this page I have used the usual English spelling for Dionysus, except where the name is used in a quotation or as a title such as Theatre of Dionysos or Sanctuary of Dionysos.

2. Coin showing a plan of the Theatre

The bronze coin is inscribed "ΑΘΗΝ-ΑΙΩΝ", of (the people of) Athens. The obverse side (front) shows the head of Athena in profile, facing right, wearing a crested Corinthian helmet. It was collected by Louis François Sébastien Fauvel (1753-1838), the French consul and antiquarian who lived in Athens 1803-1822. It was later given by Lord Aberdeen to Richard Payne Knight (1750-1824), who left it in his will to the British Museum, where it it is now part of the Payne-Knight collection.

Copper alloy coin.
Weight: 4.361 grams
Die-axis 6 o'clock
Diameter 21 mm
Museum No.: RPK,p36L.7.Ath
The coin is not on display in the museum.

Image source: James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, The antiquities of Athens, measured and delineated, Volume II, Chapter IV, page 85. Priestley and Weale, London, 1825. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

Illustrations of this coin appeared in several books by early modern travellers to Greece, including opposite the title page to William Martin Leake's Topography of Athens:

William Martin Leake (1777-1860), The topography of Athens, with some remarks on its antiquities. John Murray, London, 1821. At the Internet Archive.

A description of the medal from a British Museum coin catalogue of 1888:

"Number 807. Head of Athena right, wearing crested Corinthian helmet.

Theatre of Dionysos immediately surmounted by the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus, behind which rises the southern wall of the Acropolis, on the summit of which are on the left the Propylaea, in the centre the Parthenon, and on the right a third building."

Barclay V. Head, A Catalogue of the Greek Coins in the British Museum: Attica, Megaris, Aegina, page 110; Plate XIX, 8. Trustees of the British Museum, London, 1888.

Six coins of this type, found during excavations in the Athenian Agora, were catalogued by John H. Kroll and Alan S. Walker, and described as:

"Theater of Dionysos, seen from south; above, at center, Parthenon; at left, possibly the Chalkotheke or Propylaia; at right of Parthenon, round temple of Roma and Augustus; border of dots."

John H. Kroll (with contributions by Alan S. Walker), The Athenian Agora XXVI: The Greek coins, catalogue No. 375, page 159. The American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA), Princeton, New Jersey, 1993. PDF at ascsa.edu.gr.

Another coin of this type is in the Harvard Art Museums.
Inv. No. 2002.282.2. See photos and details at:

The Acropolis and the Theatre of Dionysos
depicted on an Athenian bronze coin.

Around 264-267 AD, late Roman period.

3. The audience capacity of ancient theatres

See, for example: Stamatia Eleftheratou (editor), Acropolis Museum guide, page 68. Acropolis Museum Editions, Athens, 2014.

4. Naumachiae

5. The invisible theatre

See: James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, The antiquities of Athens, measured and delineated, Volume II, Chapter IV, plate XXXVIII. Priestley and Weale, London, 1825. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

6. Rediscovery of the Theatre by Chandler

"The hill, near this end [of the Acropolis], is idented with the site of the theatre of Bacchus, by which is a solitary church or two... Some stone-work remains at the two extremities, but the area is ploughed, and produces grain."

Richard Chandler, Travels in Greece, or an account of a tour made at the expense of the Society of Dilettanti, Chapter 12, pages 61-64. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1776. At the Internet Archive.

Despite his intelligent efforts to locate ancient monuments in Greece, he sometimes confused references by ancient authors and made several errors. He believed, for example, that the Odeion of Herodes Atticus was the Odeion of Pericles (pages 64-65).

William Martin Leake (1777-1860), The topography of Athens, with some remarks on its antiquities, pages 25-29. J. Murray, London, 1821. At the Internet Archive.

Leake expanded his description of the Theatre of Dionysos and acknowledged Chandler's discovery in the second edition of the The topography of Athens:

"Chandler was the first who gave his opinion that these remains belonged to the theatre of Bacchus. Barthélemy followed him in the Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis *, where, speaking of the choragic monuments found in the vicinity of this theatre, he justly remarks, 'Il convenait que les trophées fussent élevées auprès du champ de bataille.' Jeune Anach. II. 12. But some later authors have still adhered to the opinion of Stuart." Page 184, note 3.

Leake also expressed surprise at James Stuart mistaking the remains of the theatre for the Odeion of Pericles, and the Odeion of Herodes Atticus for the theatre. Stuart may have been aware that what we now know to be the Odeion of Herodes Atticus was a Roman building, but presumed that the Theatre of Dionysos had been rebuilt during the Roman period, which is also now known to be the case.

"The Dionysiac theatre, or theatre of Bacchus, is another point of Athenian topography upon which there can be no doubt, and its position is of such consequence, that a mistake in regard to it led Stuart to several erroneous conclusions on the topography of the city. He supposed that the theatre, the ruins of which are seen under the south-western corner of the Acropolis, was the Dionysiac theatre, and that the building, of which the form only, together with some vestiges of one of the wings, are traced near the south-eastern angle, was the Odeium of Pericles; in which opinion, one is surprised he should have imagined that a building, so entirely of the construction of Roman times as the former, could have been the theatre where the works of Aeschylus and his followers in the drama were first represented, and equally so that he should have conceived that so large an edifice as the latter could ever have been covered by a pointed wooden roof, such as that of the tent-shaped building of Pericles." Pages 183-184.

William Martin Leake, The topography of Athens and the Demi, Volume I: The topography of Athens (The topography of Athens, second edition), Section II, pages 183-188, and Appendix XII, On the capacity of the Dionysiac Theatre, pages 520- J. Rodwell, London, 1841. At the Internet Archive.

7. The xoanon of Dionysos Eleuthereos

This statue is often described by modern authors as being made of wood, based on the interpretation of Pausanias' use of the word xoanon (ξόανον) as a wooden image. However, he appears to have used the word for cult images in general, often without specifying the materials from which they were made. See the note on gallery page 11. He called the copy of the statue at Eleutherae an agalma (ἄγαλμα, glory, delight, honour; thence pleasing gift, especially for the gods; used to describe a statue in honour of a god, or more generally a statue, portrait, picture or image).

During the Dionysia, the festival of Dionysus in Athens, the statue was taken in a procession to a small temple of the god near the Academy (Ἀκαδημία, i.e. Plato's Academy), northwest of Kerameikos.

"Outside the city, too, in the parishes and on the roads, the Athenians have sanctuaries of the gods, and graves of heroes and of men. The nearest is the Academy, once the property of a private individual, but in my time a gymnasium ... Then there is a small temple, into which every year on fixed days they carry the image [ἄγαλμα] of Dionysus Eleuthereus."

Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book 1, chapter 29, section 2.

Philostratus "the Athenian" (circa 160-249 AD) wrote that the wealthy Athenian Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes (referred to as Atticus, circa 65 - before 160 AD), father of the more famous Herodes Atticus, financed the catering for the revellers during the time of the procession:

"And whenever the festival of Dionysus came round and the image [ἕδος, seated statue of a god] of Dionysus descended to the Academy, he [Atticus] would furnish wine to drink for citizens and strangers alike, as they lay in the Cerameicus on couches of ivy leaves."

8. The Odeion of Pericles

The odeion was described briefly by Vitruvius and Plutarch, both of whom attributed its establishment to Pericles.

"Behind the scenes porticos are to be built; to which, in the case of sudden showers, the people may retreat from the theatre, and also sufficiently capacious for the rehearsals of the chorus: such are the porticos of Pompey, of Eumenes at Athens, and of the temple of Bacchus; and on the left passing from the theatre, is the Odeum, which, in Athens, Pericles ornamented with stone columns, and with the masts and yards of ships, from the Persian spoils. This was destroyed by fire in the Mithridatic war, and restored by king Ariobarzanes."

Vitruvius, de Architectura, Book 5, chapter 9, section 1. At Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius website, University of Chicago.

"The Odeum, which was arranged internally with many tiers of seats and many pillars, and which had a roof made with a circular slope from a single peak, they say was an exact reproduction of the Great King's pavilion, and this too was built under the superintendence of Pericles. Wherefore Cratinus, in his Thracian Women, rails at him again:

'The squill-head Zeus! lo! here he comes,
The Odeum like a cap upon his cranium,
Now that for good and all the ostracism is o'er.'

Then first did Pericles, so fond of honour was he, get a decree passed that a musical contest be held as part of the Panathenaic festival. He himself was elected manager, and prescribed how the contestants must blow the flute, or sing, or pluck the zither. These musical contests were witnessed, both then and thereafter, in the Odeum."

Plutarch (Πλούταρχος, circa 46-120 AD), The Parallel Lives, The life of Pericles, chapter 13, sections 5-6. Loeb Classical Library edition, Vol. III, 1916. Also at LacusCurtius.

Pausanias took little notice of the building, which he referred to merely as "a structure". By the time of his stay in Athens, somewhere around 143-159 AD, it had probably been superseded by the Odeion of Agrippa (or Agrippeion), built in the Agora following Marcus Agrippa’s visit to Athens in the winter of 16/15 BC (see The Pedestal of Agrippa).

"Near the sanctuary of Dionysus and the theater is a structure, which is said to be a copy of Xerxes' tent. It has been rebuilt, for the old building was burnt by the Roman general Sulla when he took Athens."

Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book 1, chapter 20, section 4. At Perseus Digital Library.

Pausanias' mentioned the Odeion of Agrippa in Book 1, chapter 8, section 6, and chapter 14, section 1, where he wrote: "When you have entered the Odeum at Athens you meet, among other objects, a figure of Dionysus worth seeing". Shortly after he saw it, the roof collapsed. It was destroyed by fire and then dismantled in the 3rd century AD, and some of its decorative elements were used in the building of a gymnasium around 400 AD.

See:

Margaret C. Miller, Athens and Persians in the fifth century BC: A sudy in cultural receptivity. Cambridge University Press, 1997. Chapter 9 is a study of theories concerning the history the Odeion of Pericles.

9. The Odeion of Pericles rebuilt by Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia

According to the historian Appian of Alexandria (Ἀππιανὸς Ἀλεξανδρεύς, Appianos Alexandreus, circa 95-165 AD), the odeion was burnt down, not by Sulla as Pausanias stated (see previous note), but by Aristion (Ἀριστίων), the philosopher and tyrant of Athens who allied the city with Mithridates VI Eupator against Rome, to prevent Sulla using its timber as siege material. After taking refuge on the Acropolis, Aristion was captured by Sulla's troops and executed on 1st March 86 BC.

"A few [Athenians] had taken their feeble course to the Acropolis, among them Aristion, who had burned the Odeum, so that Sulla might not have the timber in it at hand for storming the Acropolis. Sulla forbade the burning of the city, but allowed the soldiers to plunder it."

Vitruvius' claim (see previous note) that the rebuilding of the odeion was financed by Ariobarzanes II of Cappadocia (Ἀριοβαρζάνης Β΄ Φιλοπάτωρ, Ariobarzanes Philopator, king of Cappadocia circa 63/62 BC - circa 52/51 BC, an ally or puppet of Rome) appears to be supported by two inscriptions from the Sanctuary of Dionysos Eleuthereos, known since the 18th century. The first is an honorary dedication by the demos (city) of Athens to Ariobarzanes (see photo above and photo right), who is referred to as their euergetes (εὐεργέτης, benefactor, patron):

ὁ δῆμος
βασιλέα Ἀριοβαρζάνην
Φιλοπάτορα τὸν ἐκ βασι-
λέως Ἀριοβαρζάνου Φι-
λορωμαίου καὶ βασιλίσ-
σης Ἀθηναίδος Φιλοστόρ-
γου τὸν ἑαυτοῦ εὐεργέ-
την ἀνέθηκεν.

The demos [dedicated] to King Ariobarzanes Philopator, son of King Ariobarzanes Philoromaios and of Queen Athenais Philostorgos, its benefactor.

Inscription IG II 2 3427.

Although the inscription has been described as a being on a statue base, the label to the inscription, as displayed near the theatre in the archaeological site of the South Slope of Acropolis (Inv. No. NK 284), describes it as an "inscribed column drum of an unfluted dedicatory column". It was found built into a later wall of the skene of the theatre, but may have orginally formed part of the odeion's interior colonnade.

The attribution of the design or supervision of the building of Ariobarzanes' new odeion to Gaius and Marcus Stallius and Menalippos is based on the statue base dedicated by the three men to Ariobarzanes:

βασιλέα Ἀριοβαρζάνην Φιλοπάτορα τὸν ἐκ βασιλέως
Ἀριοβαρζάνου Φιλορωμαίου καὶ βασιλίσσης
Ἀθηναίδος Φιλοστόργου οἱ κατασταθέντες
ὑπ’ αὐτοῦ ἐπὶ τὴν τοῦ ὠιδείου κατασκευὴν
Γάιος καὶ Μᾶρκος Στάλλιοι Γαίου ὑοὶ καὶ
Μενάλιππος ἑαυτῶν εὐεργέτην.

King Ariobarzanes Philopator, son of King Ariobarzanes Philoromaios and of Queen Athenais Philostorgos, [is honored by] those commissioned by him for the construction of the Odeion, Gaius and Marcus Stallius, sons of Gaius, and Menalippos, as their benefactor.

Inscription IG II 2 3426.

Menalippos (here written as Μενάλιππος) is sometimes referred to by modern scholars as Melanippus, as the name is considered to be a misspelling of Melanippos (Μελάνιππος), the name of several mythological characters. Some of these, however, are also named as Menalippos in Greek texts.

The three men have been described as "architects", "supervisors" or "bankers", although it is not known which part any of them played in the construction of the odeion. It is usually assumed that the Stallius brothers were Roman and Menalippos a Greek.

Ariobarzanes may have been educated in Athens, as his name appears on an ephebic decree (IG II 2 1039) which lists ephebes who participated in 80/79 BC at the Sylleia (Σύλλεια), a civic festival with games in honour of Sulla. His father, known as Ariobarzanes I Philoromaios (Ἀριοβαρζάνης Α΄ Φιλορωμαίος, Ariobarzanes Friend of Rome), ruled Cappadocia from 95 BC, and having being deposed several times by Mithridates and each time regaining his throne only by Roman intervention, finally abdicated in favour of his son around 63/62 BC. Nothing is known for certain about his mother, Athenais Philostorgos I (Άθηναἷς Φιλόστοργος Α', Athenais the Loving One, or Lover of her children).

The former inscription (IG II 2 3427) was mentioned by Dr. Richard Chandler, who visited Athens in 1765-1766 (see note 1), although he provides no information about where or when it was found or its location. He also wrote that the latter inscription (IG II 2 3426) was at that time "in a stable" in Athens.

"King Ariobarzanes the second, named Philopator, who reigned in Cappadocia not long after, restored it; and in a stable is an inscription, which has belonged to a statue of him erected by the persons, whom he appointed the overseers. He was honoured also with a statue by the people, as appears from another inscription."

Richard Chandler, Travels in Greece, or an account of a tour made at the expense of the Society of Dilettanti, page 65. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1776. At the Internet Archive.

William Martin Leake reported that a copy of the latter inscription, made in 1743 was sent to Paris. Unfortunately, he also omits further details concerning the object on which the dedication was inscribed.

"An inscription, of which a copy taken by the Consul of France in 1743, was sent to Paris, records the gratitude to Ariobarzanes of the persons who had superintended the repair of the Odeium. The prince is there surnamed Philopator, son of Ariobarzanes Philoromaeus. Hence he appears to have been the son of the prince with whom Cicero describes his interview in Cappadocia. (Cicer. Ep. ad Fam. 1. 15, ep. 2.)"

The references in Cicero of Ariobarzanes an his family: Cicero, epistulae ad familiares, 15, 2, 6; Cicero, de provinciis consularibus, 9.

William Martin Leake, The topography of Athens, with some remarks on its antiquities, page 28, note 1. J. Murray, London, 1821. At the Internet Archive.

It was first published by the French antiquarian Abbé Augustin Belley (1697-1771) who recognized its significance with regard to the odeion as well as an indication of the complex relationships between Rome, Greece and the Anatolian and Syrian kingdoms. According to Belley, the statue base was found by a Turk in Athens on 15th August 1743, during the rebuilding of the foundations of a house. It was subsequently discussed in several publications, including the influential books of Julien David Le Roy and Edward Dodwell.

Despite the interest in the inscriptions during the 18th and 19th centuries, little since has been published about them, or a third Attic inscription mentioning Ariobarzanes and his parents (IG II 2 3428). They have sometimes been cited in more recent publications in terms of their epigraphical significance, but with little regard for the characteristics of the physical objects themselves, and almost never with a mention of their present location. A long inscribed marble base for a statue group of the family of Ariobarzanes II, circa 75-65 BC, is in the Eleusis Archaeological Museum. Inv. No. E 1094. Inscription IE 272.

See:

Explication d'une inscription antique sur le rétablissement de l'Odeum d'Athénes, par le roi de Cappodoce. In: Histoire de l'Academie Royale des inscripions et belles-lettres..., Tome Vingt-troisieme, pages 189-200. Imprimerie Royale, Paris, 1756.

Julien-David Le Roy (1724-1803), Les ruines des plus beaux monuments de la Grèce, page 23. Paris, 1758. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

Edward Dodwell (circa 1776-1832), A classical and topographical tour through Greece during the years 1801, 1805, and 1806, Volume 1 (of 2), page 301. Rodwell and Martin, London, 1819. At the Internet Archive.

James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, The antiquities of Athens, measured and delineated, Volume II. Inscription and translation in the notes on page 91. P. Priestley and Weale, London, 1825. At Heidelberg University Digital Library.

Although Stuart and Revett were in Athens 1751-1753, before Chandler, Volume II of Stuart's The antiquities of Athens was first published after his death. The notes in this volume and those in the 1825 edition were rewritten by the editor William Newton(1735–1790), with the help of members of the Society of Dilettanti, who added new information gained since Stuart's time in Greece.

See also:

Fabio Augusto Morales, The restoration of Perikles' Odeion at Athens in the first century BC: New and ancient barbarians. In: Revista Heródoto. Unifesp. Guarulhos, Volume 1, Número 1, Março, 2016, pages 73-90. PDF at Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Brazil.

10. The location of the Prytaneion in Athens

For further information about the forms and functions of the prytaneion in Greek cities and discussion of theories concerning the location of the Athenian Prytaneion, see:

Stephen G. Miller, The Prytaneion: Its function and architectural form. University of California Press, 1978. At the Internet Archive.

11. Phaidros, son of Zoilos

The name Phaidros, son of Zoilos, is otherwise known only from an inscription naming him as the donor of a sundial found in central Athens, now in the British Museum.

Φαῖδρος ⋮ Ζωΐλου
Παιανιεὺς ⋮ ἐποίε[ι].

Phaidros son of Zoilos, from Paiania, made [it].

Inscription IG II 2 5028 (CIG 522)

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